7 Possession in ESL noun phrases
We have already noted (in 4.3.1) that cross-linguistically, there is a strong tendency for the head to occur in a fixed position in all phrases within a spoken language. If the head tends to precede its complements (i.e. modifiers), it is classified as a head-initial language, while languages where the head follows its complements are classified as head-final (Tallerman 1998:100).
In the case of sign languages, it has been pointed out that a general tendency for modifiers is to follow their heads. In German Sign Language, as stated by Prillwitz et al. (1985:89), things, persons and places that are usually referred to by noun signs occurring as central elements in the noun phrase (i.e. the head) are followed by their modifiers.
In British Sign Language, the choice between pre- and post-modifiers is regarded as optional: “there appear to be no rules governing the use of one or the other,” as Kyle and Woll (1985:157) observe. They (ibid.) add that “[s]ome researchers have suggested that the basic order is base sign + modifier, and that modifier + base sign phrases occur because of the influence of English.” Kyle and Woll (1985:157) also mention that there is not enough evidence to support this particular theory.
On the basis of the present data, Estonian Sign Language displays pre-nominal modification to express possession in noun phrases. We will deal with genitive/pronominal modifiers first, and then proceed to genitive/lexical modification.
7.1 Genitive/pronominal modifiers
If a genitive/pronominal modifier occurs in the noun phrase in ESL, it always precedes the head noun, and there is no other modifier between the genitive/pronominal and the noun it modifies. In the following examples, the sign standing for genitive/pronominal modifier is prefixed with POSS (‘possession’); depending on the direction of the handshape, 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person singular is referred to, cf.:
| (86) |
POSS:MY HOUSE ‘my house’ |
| (87) |
POSS:HIS SERVANT ‘his servant’ |
| (88) |
POSS:MY WAY (FAMILIAR) ‘my way (familiar)’/(‘I know my way’) |
Although genitive/pronominal modifier is immediately followed by the head noun, the genitive/pronominal itself may be preceded by adjectival modifier. In the following example, the latter is glossed as GOOD, cf.:
| (89) |
GOOD POSS:MY FRIEND ‘my good friend’ |
Nevertheless, the general tendency for adjectival modifiers, according to the present data, is to follow the head noun, if the latter is preceded by genitive/pronominal. See example (90) where the adjectival modifier (NEW) follows its head (GIRLFRIEND), which is modified by the possessive:
| (90) |
POSS:HIS GIRLFRIEND NEW MEET ‘[the man] meets his new girlfriend,’ |
or example (91) which displays genitive/pronominal, head noun (FILM), and adjectival modifier (FAVOURITE) (i.e. Gen/Pron, N, Adj) placement in the phrase:
| (91) |
POSS:MY FILM FAVOURITE ‘my favourite film.’ |
7.2 Genitive/lexical modifiers
Since ESL signs that function as genitive/lexical modifiers are not inflected nor carry any marker to indicate their function in the phrase, it is the order of signs that determines the role of the modifier and the modified in the possessive construction, as well as the context. In ESL, the genitive/lexical modifiers always precede the noun they modify in the present data. As an illustration, see the following examples where the genitive/lexical modifier is in bold:
| (92) |
GIRL NAME A-I-N-O ‘The girl’s name is Aino’ |
| (93) |
FILM TITLE ‘the title of the film’ |
For comparison, it is interesting to note that in spoken languages such as, for example, Estonian, Finnish or English the relationship between genitive/lexical modifier and the head noun is morphologically marked. (See, example (20) in 4.3.2; or the English translation of example (92) above.)
In effect, the users of Estonian Sign Language have more work to do while extracting the meaning from the form than, for example, the users of Estonian. As an illustration, see example (94) which has the potential for greater ambiguity than the possessive constructions in spoken languages, the latter use morphological markers to indicate the syntactic relationship between genitive/lexical modifier and the head noun, cf.:
| (94) |
BEAR FAMILY WASHING DAY WAS ‘The family of bears had a washing day.’ |
On the other hand, the data of the present study display examples where, in order to avoid ambiguity in the surface structure, one and the same sign, e.g. FILM in (95) is marked not only in the genitive/pronominal construction (POSS:MY FILM FAVOURITE), but also through repetition, as in the following genitive/lexical construction (FILM TITLE):
| (95) |
POSS:MY FILM FAVOURITE FILM TITLE ‘the title of my favourite film’ |
instead of
| (96) | ?POSS:MY FILM FAVOURITE TITLE |
In the above example, the repetition of the sign (FILM) serves to indicate explicitly that the adjectival modifier (FAVOURITE) modifies the noun sign (FILM) and not the sign for TITLE. However, if no adjectival modifier occurs in the noun phrase, Estonian Sign Language uses pre-nominal position to determine the role of the modifier and the modified, in the possessive constructions. Examples (97) and (98) serve to illustrate this; genitive/lexical modifiers are in bold:
| (97) |
POSS:HER BOYFRIEND SERVANT HORSE REIN-HOLD ‘Her boyfriend’s servant is holding the reins of the horse/is checking the horse’ |
| (98) |
ALL RECALL LONG-AGO WAS 1811 YEAR DECEMBER MONTH END ‘Everybody recalls the end of December 1811, which was long ago.’ |